Paper detail

Observations on the massive particle surface method

The geodesic method has played a crucial role in understanding the circular orbits generated by compact objects, culminating in the definition of the photon sphere, which was later generalized to a photon surface in arbitrary spacetimes. This new formulation extends the concept of the photon sphere in a broader sense, including dynamical spacetimes, as shown by the Vaidya solution. The photon surface essentially defines the null geodesics, which are originally tangent to the temporal surface, and keeps them confined to this surface. However, this formalism does not cover all classes of particles, and to overcome this limitation, a more comprehensive approach, denoted as the "massive particle surface", has been proposed that also accounts for charged massive particles. Indeed, the photon surface concept is recovered when the charge and mass of the particles are zero. In this work, we use these three formalisms to check the consistency of the results for the values of the radius of the photon sphere ($r_{ps}$) and the radius of the "innermost stable circular orbit" (ISCO) ($r_{\rm ISCO}$) for some gravitational models. In our results, the first model is described by conformal gravity, with the peculiarity that $g_{00}\neq-g_{11}^{-1}$. The second model, i.e. the Culetu solution, is developed by coupling General Relativity with nonlinear electrodynamics, which requires the consideration of the effective metric ($g_{\rm eff}^{μν}$) for geodesic approaches. Furthermore, we have also analysed the expressions for $r_{ps}$ and $r_{\rm ISCO}$ in a general static and spherically symmetric metric. Under these circumstances, we have found a discrepancy of $r_{ps}$ and $r_{\rm ISCO}$ obtained by the massive particle surface formalism as compared to the geodesic and photon surface formalisms.