Paper detail

Why planar cracks fragment into echelon cracks

Predicting the growth of large cracks in brittle materials is a fundamental unresolved problem in fracture mechanics. Under out-of-plane shear loading, an initially planar crack may fragment into multiple cracks, forming an echelon crack pattern. Explaining this phenomenon is essential for developing a general theory of crack growth. Although numerous empirical criteria have been proposed in the literature, none provide a unified explanation of all observed features and are largely restricted to two-dimensional growth in linear elastic isotropic materials. In this Letter, we confront a classical set of echelon crack growth experiments using two phase-field approaches: the classical variational model and a strength-constrained model. We show that, contrary to prevailing views, the variational model based solely on Griffith's energetic competition between elastic and fracture energies is fundamentally incomplete even for predicting the growth of large cracks. By incorporating a material strength surface that constrains the regions in which a crack can grow, the resulting model accurately predicts echelon crack growth without invoking any ad hoc assumptions about material or geometrical disorder. Results are presented for both soft and hard materials, confirming the model's general applicability to any brittle material. We further identify two governing non-dimensional parameters that control crack orientation and morphology and demonstrate that one of them, the ratio of shear to tensile strength, determines whether crack paths are more influenced by energy-based or stress-based empirical criteria, thereby reconciling these criteria within a single framework.