Paper detail

Mass estimates of the young TOI-451 transiting planets: Multidimensional Gaussian Process on stellar spectroscopic and photometric signals

The young TOI-451 planetary system, aged 125 Myr, provides a unique opportunity to test theories of planetary internal structures and atmospheric mass loss through examination of its three transiting planets. We present an exhaustive photometric and spectroscopic follow-up to determine the orbital and physical properties of the system. We perform multidimensional Gaussian Process regression with the code pyaneti on spectroscopic time-series and NGTS/LCO light curves to disentangle the stellar and planetary signal in ESPRESSO radial velocities. We show how contemporaneous photometry serves as an activity indicator to inform RV modelling within a multidimensional Gaussian Processes framework. We argue that this can be exploited when spectroscopic observations are adversely affected by low signal-to-noise and/or poor sampling. We estimate the Doppler semi-amplitudes of Kb = 2.6(+1.1,-1.2) m/s, Kc = 1.2(+1.0,-0.8) m/s and Kd = 2.7 +/- 1.2 m/s. This translates into 2-sigma mass estimates for TOI-451 b and d of Mb = 4.7(+2.1,-2.2) Earth masses and Md = 10.2(+4.6,-4.5) Earth masses, as well as a mass upper limit for TOI-451 c of Mc < 11.5 Earth masses. The derived planetary properties suggest that planets c and d contain significant hydrogen-rich envelopes. The inferred parameters of TOI-451 b are consistent with either a rocky world that still retains a small hydrogen envelope or a water world. These insights make the TOI-451 system an ideal laboratory for future follow-up studies aimed at measuring atmospheric compositions, detecting atmospheric mass-loss signatures, and further exploring planetary formation and evolution processes.